In a study of college students videotaped during counselling sessions the psychologist focused on the student’s emotional state (Schore, in Siegel et al, 2021). A control was used where the counsellor chatted with clients about hobbies and entertainment without focusing on student’s emotional states or troubles. Increases in interpersonal right-brain synchronisation was observed in both brains which was linked with the affective bond or positive attachment in the dyad. This right-lateralised interbrain synchronisation was ‘significantly larger’ in the counselling as opposed to the chatting group. The study concluded that training of counsellors should focus on how to help trainees develop the nonverbal skill of synchronising with clients effectively. Among all forms of interbrain communications, the communication of emotion is the most important process for mental health.
Interpersonal neurobiology holds that the structure and function of the mind and brain are shaped by social experience, particularly emotional connections (Schore, 2019a). An interpersonal neurobiological perspective on development describes how ‘brains align their neural activities with other brains’, not only in early development but in all social interactions (Schore, 2019a). The growth of the brain is dependent upon a brain-brain positive affective relationship between the mother and infant (Schore, 2021b). In dynamic systems, synchrony reflects the degree to which interactants integrate with the flow of their partners behaviour and responses. Synchrony is the social coupling of two or more individuals in a communication context that emerges alongside verbal exchange and it develops as both partners learn the ‘rhythmic structure’ of the other and modify their behaviour to fit that structure. Synchrony is closely linked with ‘affective reciprocal interchange’, emotional transmission, physiological linkage and coregulation. In reciprocal communication systems there is turn-taking during which partners align and match their psychobiological states and adjust arousal, attention and stimulation to each other. The interaction between mother and infant is like a dance involving misstep, give and take and lots of learning (Schore, 2012).
Synchronisation happens at different levels: Neural activity, physiological states like heartbeat rhythm, pupil size, facial expression and body posture (Schore, 2019). Right-lateralised inter-brain synchrony that begins in infancy continues on in later stages of development. Mother and infant co-ordinate heart rhythms during moments of interactive synchrony – this Mother-child behavioural synchrony is stable into adolescence. Research on 9-year-olds with their Mum’s shows brain co-ordination during ‘affect synchrony’ while engaged in dialogue in the home. Synchrony operates beneath verbal interaction evidenced in matching of posture and gaze. This creates an alignment that facilitates mutual understanding and is evidenced in synchrony at the neural level. When listening to a story, the story-teller and listener become synchronised, with the degree of co-ordination predicting alignment of mental states and consequent understanding.
Interpersonal synchrony acts as a basic interpersonal neurobiological mechanism in dyads, but also in all human groups, as well as in cultures (Schore, 2021a). Synchrony, along with repair of or soothing of stress states promote resilience and security (Schore, 2019a). Synchronisation of right brain patterns allows emotional and regulatory functions to be shared and thereby facilitates the growth and development of the right brain throughout the lifespan (Schore, 2021b). However, interpersonal synchronisation happens only in pairs that have a shared communicative history. Interbrain synchrony, alignment and coupling, are the primary building blocks of brain growth not just in the early years but throughout life (Schore, 2021b).
For full emotional communication a person needs to allow their state of mind to be influenced by that of the other which is person-to-person synchrony (Siegel, 2020). Sensitivity to the signals of the other allows our states to become aligned. The joining of two minds creates a ‘resonating we’. Attachment figures allow a child to feel part of a larger ‘we’ rather than just an isolated self. Psychopathology can be understood as being alone with overwhelming emotions – the absence of dyadic affect regulation (Fosha, 2021). The level of synchrony (and regulation) in the attachment relationship may depend to a large extent on synchrony in the relationships and systems which surround the attachment relationship: between parents, in the community and the wider culture.
Studies indicate that there are essential behaviours in social interactions that regulate physiological states and moods in adults (Dissanayake, 2015). These are: Giving and receiving praise; recognition; encouragement; comfort, smiles and touch. These actions and intentions, that are encoded in facial expressions, vocal contours and rhythms, are what infant’s illicit from their mothers. Infants recognise the positive feelings and intentions of others through “rhythmically patterned, cyclical movements that are coordinated to their own expressive movements” (Dissanayake, 2015, p.42). Even young adults and children with profound mental handicaps can enjoy these interactions indicating it is a basic system of emotional communication. These behaviours influence neurophysiological, endocrinological and immunological functioning. We evolved to be creatures who need signs of mutuality. When positive states are shared with another, attunement, mutuality, or ‘the space of we’ is created (Dissanayake, 2015). Matching another’s expressed states can evoke a similar state in oneself, thus making it is possible to share the feeling. Being mirrored by the other enhances one’s mood or state. ‘Rhythmic modal’ expressions of mutuality with caretakers take place in brief bouts and in hunter-gather and similar societies can take place with many others. They are soon followed on by similarly structured, long-lasting group events that unite large numbers.
The right hemisphere continues to enter later growth spurts, particularly in adolescence and so ‘the right-lateralised synchronised intersubjective communication system’ evolves across the lifespan (Schore, 2021). Interpersonal synchrony acts as a basic interpersonal neurobiological mechanism in dyads, but also in all human groups, as well as in cultures. However, it is crucial that the ‘primordial critical period for intersubjectivity’ is protected properly. A lack of protection can have a long-term impact on the emotional health of the culture, particularly for males. Right brain deficits of intersubjectivity result in the inability to emotionally communicate and synchronise with another brain, particularly when under stress.
Rhythm
Secure mothers ‘smoothly meshed’ their rhythms with those of their infant’s as opposed to imposing their own pace or agenda (Wallin, 2007). Psychobiological attunement and interactive entrainment of physiological rhythms mediate attachment which regulates biological synchronicity between and within organisms (Schore, 2012). Trevarthen describes how ‘playful, spontaneous face-to-face protoconversations’ are expressed in “synchronised, rhythmic-turn-taking transactions” (Schore, 2021b, p.1) through which both are ‘mutually regulated’ facilitating the intercoordination of positive brain states of both members of the dyad.
Some psychologists have argued that face-to-face caregiver-infant interactions provides crucial stimulation needed for the developing infant’s brain (Dissanayake, 2015). However, in some cultures mutual gaze is discouraged but these babies are carried continuously on their mother’s bodies immersed in a rich social environment in which they are presented with experiences for “interacting with and adjusting to the rhythms and styles of their intimates” (Dissanayake, 2015, p. 41). In the Gusii of Kenya there is little direct conversing with infants and gaze is avoided, but there is still a large amount of matching in interactions so that a ‘rhythmic, cyclical pattern’ is established. Dissanayake concludes that “motive processes can apparently be transmitted by any part of the rhythmic, cross-modal, dynamically modulated performance”, not just by the eyes and face (Dissanayake, 2015, p.41).
Rhythm is one of our most powerful tools for regulating our biology (Perry and Winfrey, 2021). Entrainment takes place when the rhythm of one experience synchronises with the rhythm of another (Machiodi, 2020). Babies hear the first rhythm in utero in the sound of the mother’s heartbeat. It creates sound, pressure and vibration that provide input to the brain as it is starting to organise (Perry and Winfrey, 2021). These become implicit memories that associate 60-80 bpm rhythms with the sense of feeling warm and safe. After birth, rhythms at these frequencies can comfort and soothe. Loss of rhythm or unpredictable patterns can become associated with threat. Swaying, rocking or patting an infant to the rhythm of a resting heart beat is the natural way to calm them (Machiodi, 2020). Variations in this essential rhythm impacts emotions, relationships and physiology. A person’s voice can promote entrainment through tempo and rhythm and so support regulation. Story-telling with gentle prosody and singing familiar rhymes and songs also support self-regulation.
Neuroscience supports the idea that ‘infant-directed’ speech, or ‘motherese’, is critical for the development of areas in the right hemisphere that process prosodic-emotional functions (Schore, 2021b). What Darwin referred to as ‘the sweet music of the species’ is preferred over adult directed speech a few weeks after birth, regardless of culture. Music and prosodic voices have a regulating effect throughout the lifespan (Porges, 2011; Machiodi, 2020; Van Der Kolk, 2015) suggesting it is a basic mechanism of regulation.
References
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Dissanayake, E. (2015). Art and intimacy: How the arts began. University of Washington Press.
Perry, B. D., & Szalavitz, M. (2010). Born for love: Why empathy is essential–and endangered. HarperCollins.
Perry, B. D. (2013a). Brief: Reflections on Childhood, Trauma and Society. The ChildTrauma Academy Press.
Schore, A. N. (2012). The science of the art of psychotherapy (Norton series on interpersonal neurobiology). W. W. Norton & Company.
Schore, A. (2017a). Allan Schore: A critical period for shaping our emotional selves and social brains [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bhjPfCwTHPs&t=3115s
Schore, A. (2017b). The development of the right brain across the life span [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_B6WekX75s&t=2907s
Schore, A. N. (2019a). The development of the unconscious mind (Norton series on interpersonal neurobiology). W. W. Norton & Company.
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Schore, A. N. (2021b). The interpersonal neurobiology of intersubjectivity. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648616
Siegel, D. J. (2020). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are (3rd ed.). Guilford Publications.
Trevarthen, C. (2013). Born for art and the joyful companionship of fiction. In Narváez, D. Evolution, early experience and human development: From research to practice and policy. Oxford University Press.
Trevarthen, C. (2019) Sharing joyful friendship and imagination for meaning with infants, and their application in early intervention. In Acquarone, S., & Taylor & Francis Group. Surviving the early years: The importance of early intervention with babies at risk. Routledge.
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Winfrey, O. (2021). What happened to you? Conversations on trauma, resilience, and healing. Pan Macmillan.